Symposium CP04 : Interfacial Science and Engineering—Mechanics, Thermodynamics, Kinetics and Chemistry

Solute segregation in nanocrystalline metals has been widely explored as a route to improve the thermal stability of fine grain microstructures. Efforts have revealed that segregation may not always be uniform or subtle, thereby shifting the microstructural stabilization mechanism [1,2]. Delineating the subtle differences between these two mechanisms maybe be possible through improved understanding of mass transport along solute decorated grain boundaries. In this work, we present very recent observations of grain boundary diffusion with concomitant microstructural evolution by employing a thin film diffusion triple configuration. A 10nm layer of pure Al then a 500nm layer of a nanocrystalline, highly textured Ni-Cr alloy are deposited via DC magnetron sputtering on to a coarse-grained Ni-Cr alloy substrate of the same nominal composition. These diffusion triples are annealed under flowing Ar at 600C and the asymmetric diffusion profile is extracted via STEM EDX and APT characterization. Comparison of these diffusion data are presented against similar thin film diffusion triples containing <1at% Y in the nanocrystalline films. Despite nearly identical initial microstructures, there are significant differences between these diffusion profiles, with implications for microstructural stability as well as environmental resistance.

[1] Darling, K. A., M. Rajagopalan, M. Komarasamy, M. A. Bhatia, B. C. Hornbuckle, R. S. Mishra, and K. N. Solanki. "Extreme creep resistance in a microstructurally stable nanocrystalline alloy." Nature 537, no. 7620 (2016): 378.
[2] Abdeljawad, Fadi, Ping Lu, Nicolas Argibay, Blythe G. Clark, Brad L. Boyce, and Stephen M. Foiles. "Grain boundary segregation in immiscible nanocrystalline alloys." Acta Materialia 126 (2017): 528-539.

The coffee-ring effect refers to the phenomena in which a drop of a colloidal suspension evaporates on a substrate and deposits an ordered ring-structure due to the outward radial evaporative flow. This phenomena has been well-investigated due to numerous practical applications including ink-jet printing, microscale separations, and sensing/diagnostics. However, the phenomena has been less quantified for a crystallizing solution. When a drop of salt solution is evaporated, the salt becomes supersaturated and crystals begin to emerge at the substrate. The emerging crystals alter the local wettability of the substrate and fundamentally alter fluid dynamics of evaporation, which in turn alters the form of deposit left behind. Here, we investigate the role of energetic interactions between the substrate, crystals, and solution. We systematically vary the substrate interfacial chemistry by deposition of silane groups of various surface energies, and use four different crystal systems to probe this effect. We find that crystals with favorable interactions with the underlying substrate chemistries alter deposit morphology, while non-interacting crystals behave similarly to colloidal particles, and develop phase diagrams predicting this behavior. These results can be used for fine-tuned control and understanding of crystalline evaporative deposits.

Magnesium metal is potential candidate for high strength to weight ratio alloys with wide application in aerospace and automotive industries. However, poor corrosion resistance under ambient environmental conditions is the bottleneck for industrial deployment. Designing passivation layers and/or corrosion resistance alloys require fundamental understanding of the corrosion process. The traditional ex-situ spectroscopic measurements of polycrystalline metal surface with ubiquitous surface impurities provided indistinct view of the corrosion process. To clearly distinguish the mechanism and sequence of corrosion process, we employed in-situ cryo-based x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) measurements on well-defined pure and aqueous solution exposed Mg-single crystal surfaces in combination with ab initio atomistic modelling studies. Clean Mg (0001) surfaces were carefully exposed to pure and sodium chloride mixed water and the subsequent interfacial reactions were studies through integrated experimental and theoretical approach. This study provides atomistic view of magnesium hydroxide nucleation as main product of the corrosion process. Under salt conditions, the competitive nucleation process between magnesium hydroxide and magnesium chloride were observed along with the formation of magnesium chloride hydrate and magnesium hydroxide hydrate phases. By combining the energy requirements from computational modelling and the electronic states of corrosion products, the mechanism and sequence of corrosion process on Mg metal will be discussed.

The increasing research of nanowires (NWs) as building blocks for electronic, optoelectronic, energy devices and quantum computing is driven by the unique physical, and chemical properties originate from their nanoscale dimensionality. Catalyzed surface-guided NWs offer the possibility to control their position, direction and crystallographic orientation, which eventually leads to high-performance devices. To adequately control these features and gain predictive abilities, a deeper understanding of the growth mechanism of surface-guided NWs is required. Here, we experimentally and theoretically study the kinetics of planar catalyzed NWs. We present a model that considers two main regimes of the growth rate of NWs depending on their thickness: the Gibbs–Thompson regime, which dominates the growth of thinner NWs, and the surface-diffusion-induced regime, which dominates the growth of thicker ones. By developing this kinetic model and fitting it to the experimental kinetic data, we determine the dimensionality of the surface diffusion. We observe a good correlation between the model and the results for surface-guided ZnSe and ZnS NWs grown on sapphire. The dimensionality of the surface diffusion value was determined to be ~1.5 and ~1.8 for ZnSe and ZnS NWs, respectively, in contrast to the value of 1 for vertical NWs growth models, supporting the difference between the two growth morphologies. The newly developed model distinguishes between the growth mechanisms of horizontal and vertical NWs, underscores the important role of the substrate in the horizontal growth, and provides new insights into the mechanism of surface-guided NWs growth. Understanding the growth mechanism introduces the possibility of controlling the growth directions and crystallographic orientations of the aligned NWs accurately and helps gain some prediction abilities of the NWs properties, leading to better nanowire-based electronic and optoelectronic devices.

Organic-inorganic hybrid perovskites, such as the prototypical methylammonium lead iodide (CH₃NH₃PbI₃ or MAPbI₃), have emerged as promising light absorbers in photovoltaic (PV) cells or as emitters in light-emitting diodes (LEDs). The strikingly high energy conversion efficiency up to ~ 20% ensures hybrid perovskites as the key component of highly efficient solar cells. However, they generally suffer from moisture instability, which limits the long-term use of perovskite-based devices in ambient environment. In this work, in order to improve the surface moisture stability of MAPbI₃ in common humidity atmosphere, more specifically, to discover better ligands under a specific coverage on the [MAI]⁰ surface to greatly improve the moisture stability and decrease the ion dissociation rate, we have applied molecular dynamics (MD) simulations and reaction kinetics theory to model the ion dissociation process and estimate the associated free energy barrier with and without ligand passivation. We have developed a new MD force field for MAPbI₃, which can match the density functional theory (DFT)-predicted elastic properties, experimental water contact angle on MAPbI₃, and DFT-predicted water infiltration and adhesion energies. We design MAPbI₃ with ligand-passivated surfaces by replacing MA⁺ with ligands composed of long-chain alkyl-ammoniums. Ligands with different chain lengths, such as CH₃(CH₂)_nNH₃⁺ (n = 3, 5, 7), and under different surface coverages (σ = 25%, 50%, 75%, 100%), are considered here. We discover that ligand passivation can greatly help protect MA⁺ on the surface due to the much higher dissociation free energy barriers of these ligands compared to that of MA⁺. For iodine ions, ligand passivation can also shield them from water contacts, except for long-chain ligands, such as CH₃(CH₂)_nNH₃⁺ (n = 5, 7) under full surface coverage (σ = 100%), due to the reduced dissociation free energy barriers of long-chain ligands. As an interesting finding, the reduced dissociation free energy barriers for long-chain ligands under high surface coverages could be explained by their larger tendencies to micellize, which serves as additional driving force for their dissociation. This work significantly motivates future experimental efforts in designing new surface ligands to improve the moisture stability of hybrid perovskites.

We show how surfaces can be designed to redirect the momentum of the spreading lamella causing them to lift-off into 3-dimensional shapes thereby dramatically reducing the contact area. We design superhydrophobic surfaces with an in-plane discontinuity leading to the accumulation of vertical momentum resulting in the out-of-plane ejection of the lamella into water bowls. We demonstrate a two-fold reduction in the heat transfer between a cold rain and a warm surface. These insights can be broadly applied to other transport phenomena involving mass and energy exchange to limit heat loss under precipitation, icing of surfaces, reduce salt deposition on a surface exposed to ocean spray, or inhibit the formation of a water film on wings or wind turbine blades.

Reactivity and Ion transfer processes across heterogeneous interfaces is the backbone of electrochemical devices such as batteries and dye sensitized solar cells. The complexity of reactivity and charge transfer across interfaces often arise from convoluted relations between surface chemistry (such as defect density, crystallographic orientation and functional groups) and exogenous drivers such as temperature and electric field. For example, technologically significant nanocrystalline TiO₂ with diverse surface chemistry renders a complex interfacial processes. To correlate the surface chemistry of TiO₂ with interfacial processes (reactivity and ion transfer), we performed a multimodal spectroscopic analysis in combination with ab-initio molecular dynamics (AIMD) calculations. The interfacial processes of anatase and rutile phase with varying surface chemistry against lithium bis(trifluoromethylsulfone)imide (Li-TfSI) salt were analyzed. We observed that, ubiquitous oxygen defects at TiO₂ surface regime enhance the molecular decomposition of TFSI anions. The thermally driven splitting of –CF3 groups resulting in titanium oxyfluoride type bonding (O-Ti-F) at the near surface regime were observed in AIMD calculations and supported by multimodal spectroscopic measurements. The presence of free electrons due to fluoride ion transfer to TiO₂ surface were detected using low temperature electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) analysis. In addition, separated Li⁺ from such a weakly coordinating anion, pass in through preferential transfer pathways across nanoparticle surfaces. The thermodynamics and kinetics of the molecular decomposition and associated Li⁺ ion transfer processes were derived from AIMD and high resolution nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) analysis.

Complex oxide heterostructures possess a wide range of functional electronic and magnetic properties including metal-insulator transitions, superconductivity, ferroelectricity, and colossal magnetoresistance effects. At epitaxial interfaces formed between atomically thin complex oxide films, electronic, chemical and structural interactions can be used to effectively tune the physical properties of these materials. Using a combination of atomic-scale controlled thin film synthesis and high resolution synchrotron diffraction based imaging, we show that structural distortions the interfaces between polar La_1-xSr_xMnO₃ films and non-polar substrates can be effectively tuned by chemical modifications at these interfaces to control ferromagnetism in [001]-oriented
La_1-xSr_xMnO₃ films with thickness less than 1 nm. We show that atomic-scale chemical control at polar/non polar oxide interfaces provides a powerful route to engineer novel electronic and magnetic phenomena at complex oxide interfaces.

Adhesion and interface formation are essential processes in friction, particle aggregation, and grain boundary formation. It is generally accepted that adhesion is anisotropic and the adhesion force depends on the mutual orientation of attracting interfaces. However, direct experimental measurement of the adhesion force and its orientation dependence has never been realized. Here, by combining in situ environmental transmission electron microscopy and atomic force microscopy, we directly measured the adhesion between two rutile TiO₂ (001) surfaces with controlled mutual orientation. The results show that the adhesion force is primarily van de Waals attraction between the two surfaces and is highest when the lattices of the two surfaces are aligned, demonstrating strong orientation-dependence. Moreover, the orientation dependence is not influenced by surface hydration; though, the adhesion force drops considerably with increasing water vapor pressure. Our work demonstrates a powerful method for quantitative study of nanoscale interface formation and strength, providing new insights to the driving force of orientated attachment of particles and friction anisotropy.

Early grain boundary engineering work has demonstrated how significantly material properties can be improved with tailored microstructures. Unfortunately, continued improvement in this area will require complete structure-property relationships of grain boundaries, which are currently lacking. We describe tools and efforts to obtain both crystallographic structure-property relationships and atomic structure-property relationships. And since the two are must be combined to facilitate future design efforts, we detail efforts to find correlations between them. The properties of interest in this work are thermodynamic properties, like grain boundary energy, as well as kinetic properties, like grain boundary mobility.

The nonequilibrium nature of amorphous solids such as metallic glasses (MGs) shares intriguing commonalities with grain boundaries in nanocrystalline (NC) materials, owing largely to the multiplicity of energy states inherent to disorder. Here, we report on experimental studies of MG and NC materials and novel synthesis and processing routes for controlling the structural state – and as a consequence, the mechanical properties. Relaxation processes in disordered materials that facilitate atomic reconfigurations toward a lower energy state, such as low temperature annealing, have been shown to enhance mechanical strength while promoting shear localization. A particular focus in this talk will be on strategies for rejuvenation of disorder with the goal of suppressing shear localization and endowing damage tolerance. Parallels between our results and rejuvenation processes in glassy systems will be discussed in the context of controlling metastable structural configurations through novel processing routes.

Polymorphism in crystallography means the ability of a solid material to exist in more than one crystalline form, and the forms differ in physical and chemical properties even though their chemical components are identical. Recently, polymorphism in two-dimensional (2D) materials has been attracting interest in obtaining diverse properties that cannot be obtained in 3D forms [1, 2]. In this study, we have found 2D polymorphic nanostructures self-organized inside silicon ingots grown by Czchralski (CZ)-method; they are composed of different 2D periodic units just along Σ9{111}/{115} grain boundaries (GBs) with a 〈110〉 tilt axis. The atomistic structure of the 2D polymorphic GBs, as well as their segregation ability, are determined by a 3D chemical nanoanalysis technique using atom probe tomography (APT) combined with scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) and ab-initio calculations [3].

STEM revealed that, Σ9{111}/{115} GBs have a periodic interface structure with a period of 2 nm along the GBs, and the GB unit is composed of Σ9{221}-like and Σ9{114}-like nanofacets involving 2 〈110〉 reconstructed bonds (named type-I GBs in this paper) [4]. Ab initio calculations reveal the GB energy of 0.6 J/m², that is higher than the GB energy of Σ9{221} (0.18 J/m²) and Σ9{114} (0.36 J/m²) GBs. Also, the 〈110〉 bonds are rather longer in comparison with the 〈111〉 bonds in bulk Si. Thus, those long bonds would induce an energy in addition to the energy of Σ9{221}-like and Σ9{114}-like nanofacets.

The GB unit in type-I GBs is changed by annealing at 1100^oC. The GB unit in the annealed GBs, that was observed in a cast-grown Si ingot [5], is composed of Σ3{111}-like nanofacets involving 4 〈110〉 bonds, with the period of 2 nm (type-II GBs). Type-II GBs can be introduced by forming stacking faults of low GB energy (~0 J/m²) on the Σ9{221}-like and Σ9{114}-like nanofacets in type-I GBs. The GB energy of type-II GBs is estimated to be 0.45 J/m². Therefore, type-I GBs change into type-II GBs so as to remove Σ9{221}-like and Σ9{114}-like nanofacets of high GB energy, via the formation of Σ3{111}-like nanofacets of low GB energy, even though 2 〈110〉 bonds of high-energy are added in each GB unit.

APT reveals the oxygen segregation ability of type-I GBs (0.04-0.06 atoms/nm²) and that of type-II GBs (0.03 atoms/nm²). The ratio of the abilities is the same as the ratio of the GB energy of type-I and type-II GBs; i.e., the ability is proportional to the GB energy, as expected [3, 4]. We will discuss potential controls of the 2D polymorphic nanostructures, as well as of their segregation ability, by changing the growth condition.

1) M. Wu, et al., Phys. Rev. B 96 (2017) 205411.
2) M. Yoshida, et al., Nano Lett. 17 (2017) 5567.
3) Y. Ohno, et al., J. Microsc. 268 (2017) 230.
4) Y. Ohno, et al., Appl. Phys. Lett. 110 (2017) 062105.
5) A. Stoffers, et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 115, 235502 (2015).
Acknowledgments: This work is supported by JST/CREST (Grant No. JPMJCR17J1, 2017-2023)

The scaling of behavior in ferroelectrics remains a topic of substantial interest given the need for device miniaturization and fundamental research. In recent years, a suite of reports has shown that the bulk piezoelectric functionality of thin ferroelectric films (approximately 30 nm or less) have a strong dependence on the surface chemical and structural state. Furthermore, these works suggest surface screening is a critical factor in understanding the bulk properties and switching behavior in thin film form, but precise mechanisms of this coupling are lacking. A key question that remains is the role of intrinsic as opposed to extrinsic screening on the properties of the thin ferroelectric films. In this work, we use BaTiO₃ (BTO) grown via pulsed laser deposition (PLD) as a model material system to explore the correlation between surface state and bulk properties. To carefully probe the surface and bulk properties of BTO thin films, we use a combination of atomically resolved scanning tunneling microscopy (STM), non-contact atomic force microscopy (AFM), piezoresponse force microscopy (PFM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and in-situ X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). The aforementioned characterization techniques provide an experimental pathway to evaluate the correlation between the surface state and bulk piezoelectric properties.

An assembly of hemispherical Ag nanoparticles is prepared by solid-state dewetting of thin Ag film deposited on the sapphire substrate. The in-situ nanomechanical compression testing of the particles with a flat diamond punch inside the scanning electron microscope demonstrates the deformation behavior typical for the nucleation-controlled plasticity: high elastic deformation followed by an abrupt particles collapse. The latter is associated with the dislocations nucleation in otherwise pristine particle. The average contact pressure in the contact zone at the onset of dislocation-controlled plasticity is about 8 GPa, and does not depend on particle size. This observation supports the hypothesis that the pseudoelasticity of much smaller Ag nanoparticles observed by Sun et al. [Nat. Mater. 2014, 13, 1007] is intrinsically related to their ultrahigh strength. A stress-induced diffusion along the particle-substrate and particle-punch interfaces is identified as a factor controlling the pseudoelastic deformation. The corresponding diffusion model allows estimating the room-temperature self-diffusion coefficient of Ag along the Ag-W and Ag-Zirconia interfaces, which was quite close to the estimated value of the grain boundary self-diffusion coefficient in Ag. Based on this finding, the map of pseudoelastic deformation of several metals is proposed.

Semiconductor heterostructures enable band-gap engineering by combining two or more dissimilar materials, and are essential for many optoelectronic applications such as multi-junction solar cells, lasers and light-emitting diodes. However, differences in lattice parameters between film and substrate give rise to interfacial misfit strain. Misfit dislocations are introduced beyond a certain critical thickness, which will likely severely limit device performance by acting as sites for electron-hole pair recombination. Identifying the sources of these defects and understanding their evolution as a function of film thickness would possibly lead to identifying a path for minimizing defects in such heterostructures by optimizing growth conditions, film thickness, etc. In this study, the creation and evolution of structural defects in low-mismatched (misfit strain ∼0.6%) GaAs (cap)/GaAs_0.92Sb_0.08/GaAs(001) heterostructures grown by molecular beam epitaxy have been investigated using transmission electron microscopy as well as high-resolution x-ray diffraction and atomic force microscopy (AFM). Three distinct stages of strain relaxation were identified in GaAs_0.92Sb_0.08 films with thicknesses in the range of 50-4000 nm, whereas 50-nm-thick GaAs capping layers exhibited only initial Stage-I relaxation. Aberration-corrected electron microscopy revealed that glide-set dissociated 60° dislocations were primarily formed during Stage-I relaxation. Lomer edge dislocations with compact core structure and curved dislocations prevalently with edge character formed in Stage-II and Stage-III of relaxation. Evolution of dislocation density at cap/film interfaces showed a strong correlation with the evolution of surface morphology at the growth front. Even though misfit strain was highest at the cap/film interface of the heterostructure with 4000-nm-thick film, dislocation density was lower in comparison with heterostructures with 1000-nm-thick and 2000-nm-thick films. AFM results indicated that smoothening of the growth front in the heterostructure with 4000-nm-thick film caused a decrease in the areal density of surface troughs which may act as preferred sites for heterogeneous nucleation of dislocation half-loops. Detailed consideration of different sources for threading dislocations and the experimental evidence of correlation between decreased dislocation density and decreased density of surface troughs led to the conclusion that heterogeneously nucleated surface half-loops are the major source of threading dislocations in these low-mismatched heterostructures [1].
Reference
[1] A. Gangopadhyay, A. Maros, N. Faleev, D.J. Smith, Strain relaxation in low-mismatched GaAs/GaAs_1-xSb_x/GaAs heterostructures, Acta Mater. 162 (2019) 103-115.

III-V-Bismides are attractive materials for near- and mid-IR device applications due to their dramatic decrease in band gap with small incorporations of bismuth. The growth space of GaAs_1-xBi_x has been explored by molecular beam epitaxy, with the highest obtained bismuth incorporation being x=0.22 [1]. However, resulting film quality has been a barrier to incorporating high bismuth content materials into optoelectronic devices. GaAsBi films are typically grown thin (<50 nm) on GaAs under-layers to prevent strain relaxation from the epitaxial mismatch. The resulting compressively strained films have exhibited a variety of phase separation characteristics, including lateral composition modulations [2], droplet induced composition inhomogeneity [3], and CuPt_B-type atomic ordering [4]. We have explored growing on InGaAs buffer layers as a method for reducing epilayer compressive strain, suppressing surface droplet formation, and eliminating vertical phase separation through the bismide film layers.

GaAsBi epilayers were grown by solid-source molecular beam epitaxy on a Veeco GENxplor MBE using a valved As₄ source and an effusion cell for bismuth. Samples were characterized by HRXRD to determine the average bismuth content and the strain state of the layers. AFM was used to analyze the droplet formation on the surface of the films. TEM and HAADF STEM were used to qualitatively characterize the bulk phase separation. By comparing samples grown on GaAs to samples grown on InGaAs buffers, we will draw connections between film strain, surface droplet formation, and phase separation. We are able to reduce the degree of phase separation that occurs in GaAsBi films, by growing on InGaAs buffer layers; thereby increasing film homogeneity and general suitability for optoelectronic applications.

[1] R.B. Lewis, M. Masnadi-Shirazi, and T. Tiedje Appl. Phys. Lett., 101 082112 (2012)
[2] E. Luna, M. Wu, J. Puustinen, M. Guina, and A. Trampert, J. Appl. Phys., 117, 185302 (2015)
[3] C. R. Tait, L. Yan, and J. M. Millunchick, Appl. Phys. Lett., 111, 042105, (2017)
[4] A. G. Norman, R. France, and A. J. Ptak, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B, 29, 03C121, (2011)

C54 titanium disilicide (TiSi₂) has attracted great attention in Fin Field-effect transistor (FinFET) application, since it has accompanied with promising advantages, such as low resistivity, outstanding reliability and low mobility in silicon substrate. In order to further investigating the structural properties, we observed the formation process of C54-TiSi₂ by in-situ TEM in this study. During the heating process, Ti atoms diffused into Si_xGe_1-x substrate and nucleated afterward to form C54-TiSi₂ . It is remarkable that we also observed the occurance of a novel type of texture-axiotaxy between C54-TiSi₂ (110) plane and Si (001) plane at around 800 celcius degree. Axiotaxy is convinced to be produced by the strain implemented on the low index planes. Additionally, the elemental distribution information was provided by Energy Dispersive Spectrometer (EDS) analysis with scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) image. With this atomic scale analysis, we are able to establish the connection between microstructure and properties, further enhance the performance of Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor (CMOS) technology.

Heteroepitaxial thin film growth on substrates with large lattice mismatch is an important area of crystal growth research to overcome applications-based restrictions on substrate choice. For some material systems, one crystalline phase may exhibit growth of domains with different epitaxial relationships to the substrate or two phases may grow simultaneously with different orientations. This process, known as double epitaxy, creates thin film materials with many grain interfaces at fixed angles with respect to the substrate. This work demonstrates double epitaxy in FeSe, an important superconducting compound with a complex phase diagram which is highly sensitive to stoichiometry. Conditions exist during pulsed laser deposition (PLD) that lead to the simultaneous epitaxial growth of the tetragonal (β-FeSe) and hexagonal Fe₇Se₈ (γ-FeSe) phases of FeSe in intermingled domains throughout the film, creating many phase boundary interfaces. We investigate the impact of PLD parameters on the double epitaxy of this interface-dominated material and identify the conditions under which double epitaxy is suppressed.. The lattice parameters of β-FeSe and γ-FeSe are unsuitable for lattice-matching epitaxial growth on (001) MgO. In the case of β-FeSe, the lattice parameter (a = 3.672-3.769 Å, depending on stoichiometry) differs from that of MgO (a = 4.211 Å) by more than the 9% normally tolerated for conventional epitaxy. The cubic structure of MgO, however, exhibits various domain matching epitaxial relationships with the various FeSe crystalline phases. This opens opportunities for engineering the internal interfacial boundaries of different FeSe phases by controlling the rotation of the epitaxial domains with processing parameters. A KrF excimer laser (1.4-3.4 J/cm²) was used to ablate a pressed, sintered target synthesized from FeSe powder. Targets were sintered in sealed quartz ampules at 700°C for 12 hours. Targets were ablated in high vacuum (10^-6 torr) with substrate temperatures in the 350-550°C range. FeSe films grown at temperatures between 350°C and 450°C with laser fluence fixed at 3.4 J/cm² showed the simultaneous epitaxial growth of both (001)-oriented β-FeSe and (101)-oriented γ-FeSe. The relative fraction of these two phases changes smoothly from majority β-FeSe at 350°C to majority γ-FeSe at 450°C. The β-FeSe phase grows aligned with the substrate and the γ-FeSe phase grows in two rotated domains, one dominant domain aligned with the substrate and a minor domain rotated by 45°. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) reveals the granular surface morphology with apparent grain sizes of 220-300 nm in films grown at 350°C and 450°C. The film grown at 400°C has a nearly equal fraction of each phase and the apparent grain size is found in the 120-200 nm range. The smaller grain size points to a larger number of phase interfaces, corresponding to an estimated number density of β-FeSe/γ-FeSe interfaces of 3.5x10⁹ cm^-2. Substrate temperature of 550°C results in a change in epitaxial orientation of β-FeSe from (001) to (101)-oriented. The (101) oriented β-FeSe grows in three domains, one aligned with the substrate and two others rotated by ±30°. AFM of the (101)-oriented FeSe shows large, micron scale grains leading to a much smaller grain interface number density than the biphasic films on the order of 10³ cm^-2. This growth technique shows the orders of magnitude scalability of in-plane interfaces of these epitaxially-oriented grains. At 550°C, reducing the laser fluence to 1.4 J/cm² increased the relative fraction of the γ-FeSe phase. The parameters of the PLD plasma plume are expected to influence the simultaneous epitaxial growth of the two phases by delivering a locally non-stoichiometric flux. Measurements of space and time resolved ion densities of the PLD plume will be presented and correlated with the emergence of γ-FeSe to determine the impact of the relative density of arriving ions on phase crystallization.

Grain boundary complexion engineering was recently introduced as a framework to be used to design grain boundaries and govern bulk material properties. The main conceptual tools of grain boundary complexion engineering are grain boundary complexion equilibrium diagrams and grain boundary complexion time-temperature-transformation (TTT) diagrams. Importantly, when the thermodynamic and kinetic diagrams are used in tandem, scientists and engineers have the ability to tailor classical processing conditions (e.g. chemistry, pressure, temperature, and time) to intelligently control grain boundary complexions, and specifically, complexion transitions from one complexion type to another. The ability to control complexion transitions is particularly important because a complexion transition could theoretically convert a tough material to a brittle material or an insulator to a conductor. Overall, the first segment of this talk will review the concepts of grain boundary complexion engineering and outline various approaches to develop the necessary complexion equilibrium and time-temperature-transformation diagrams. The second segment of this talk will summarize a grain boundary complexion engineering case study of silica and rare-earth oxide doped boron suboxide armor ceramics. Boron suboxide is being investigated as a promising armor ceramic because of its low density and high hardness, however, boron suboxide exhibits poor sinterability and fracture toughness. This case study outlines how grain boundary complexion engineering is used to control the thermodynamics and kinetics of grain boundary complexion transformations to improve sinterability and enhance fracture toughness. Boron suboxide powders were co-doped with silica and rare-earth oxide additives and the resultant microstructures were analyzed using advanced electron microscopy techniques to characterize grain boundary structures and quantify grain boundary segregation. The main observations include clear differences in microstructural evolution between the silica and rare-earth dopants, modified atomic structures with different excess grain boundary segregation concentrations, and improvements in bulk hardness.

Ni/Al reactive nanolaminates are systems of current scientific interest due to their highly customizable exothermic combustion characteristics. The high combustion temperatures and wave speeds attainable by these systems have found industrial application in soldering microelectronic components and have been proposed as microinitiators in military ordnance. Ni/Al nanolaminates are typically synthesized through a physical vapor deposition (PVD) technique, allowing precise control of nanostructure which has been shown to have significant impacts on combustion characteristics. The most fundamental structural attribute is the bilayer thickness, which is defined as the combined thickness of one Ni and one Al layer. This thickness has been shown to affect both the combustion temperature and wave speed of the reaction. Correlated with the bilayer thickness, the thickness of an individual material layer has been shown to affect grain size. The PVD process forms columnar grains perpendicular to nanolaminate layers, which have average grain diameters on the order of the individual layer thickness. The current work investigates the role of grain size on reaction rates and peak temperatures. Decreasing grain dimeter provides increased rates of solid-state diffusion and subsequent solid/liquid dissolution, increasing overall reaction rates. Two bilayer thicknesses are evaluated in this work, on twice the thickness of the other, revealing stronger grain size dependence in nanolaminates with larger bilayer thicknesses.

Nickel silicide (NiSi) thin films have various advantages for microelectronics processes, such us low resistivity and low formation temperature. Therefore, it has been widely used in semiconductor devices. The formation of NiSi thin film mainly depends on the mechanism of diffusion between Ni and Si. In order to understand its formation kinetics, in-situ transmission electron microscopy (TEM) is a powerful tool to study the diffusion behavior during the process. In this work, we successfully observed the process of diffusion by in-situ TEM. We chose silicon-germanium (Si_0.7Ge_0.3) as strain layer to improve the electronic performance. During the heating process, Ni atoms would diffuse into Si_0.7Ge_0.3 layer at 400°C in the duration of 10 minutes heating. The HRTEM results and the corresponding FFT-DP demonstrated that the product was NiSi. In addition, we found that there is a specific orientation relationship of [120]_NiSi//[01-1]_Si0.7Ge0.3 and (002)_NiSi//(1-1-1)_Si0.7Ge0.3. Furthermore, the Energy Dispersive Spectrometer (EDS) analysis established the elemental information for both as-grown and after-annealed samples, giving strong evidence for the formation of the NiSi. These results provide us useful information to grow low resistivity NiSi thin film.

High-carbon steels (pearlitic steel) are widely used in the fields, including bridge cable, automobile tire cord and high-rise building, owing to the outstanding high strength and low cost. Micro-alloying is the common method to increase the strength of pearlite steels. In the simplest Fe-C-M (M: Mn, Si, Cr, Ni) ternary system, the effects of alloying elements have been extensively studied. For example, Mn, as the austenite stabilized element, delays the pearlitic transformation, improves the stability of cementite and retards the spheroidization of cementite lamellar; Si, as the non-carbide forming element, refines the lamellar structure of pearlite, increases tensile strength, improve softening resistance during tempering, and etc. However, in the complicated multicomponent system the partition and interactive effects among alloying elements needs to be attention, especially the interaction of alloying elements during the eutectoid transformation need to be further studied.
Therefore, in the present work the atomic interaction among Si, C and Mn in Fe-C-Mn-Si quaternary system during the eutectoid transformation is investigated using atom-probe tomography combining first-principle calculations. Two types of pearlitic carbon steels with different Si contents are prepared. At the initial stage of eutectoid transformation, atom probe tomography observations indicate that Si is enriched at the ferrite side of ferrite-cementite interface, while Mn is enriched at the cementite side. This interfacial segregation phenomenon gradually diminishes or disappears as the transformation proceed. Based on the results of first-principle calculations, Si moves from the core of cementite layer to the ferrite side of ferrite-cementite interface can obviously enhance the chemical bonding and stability of pearlite system. In the same manner, Mn atom moves from the core of ferrite layer to the ferrite-cementite interface, which improves the thermal stability of pearlite system. Therefore, Si/Mn segregates at each side of ferrite-cementite interface at the initial stage of pearlitic transformation. Furthermore, the partitioning ratio of Mn in high Si steel is higher than that in low Si steel, leading to more Mn partition into cementite. Based on the results of first-principles calculations, due to the strong repulsive force between Si and Mn at the interface of pearlite, the enrichment of Si in ferrite promotes the partitioning of Mn into cementite.

We have performed an ab initio study of tensorial elastic properties of the interface states in Ni₃Si associated with the Σ5(210) grain boundary (GB). Ni₃Si is well known structural material with a large potential for high temperature applications in corrosive atmospheres, which however suffers by low ductility with tendency to intergranular fracture. Rather complex tensorial elasto-chemical aspects of the studied periodic GB approximants were found in the case of states with different atoms at the GB plane (either only Ni atoms (Σ5(210)^Ni,Ni) or both Si and Ni atoms (Σ5(210)^Si,Ni)). The Σ5(210)^Ni,Ni GB state is predicted to have only a slightly lower interface energy of the two studied variants. The elastic constants are found to depend very sensitively on the GB plane chemical composition. In particular, the GB variant containing both Ni and Si atoms at the interface is shown to be unstable with respect to a shear deformation (one of the elastic constants, C₅₅, is negative). This instability is occurrs for a rectangular-parallelepiped supercell obtained when applying a standard coincidence-lattice construction. Our elastic-constant analysis allowed us to identify a shear-deformation mode reducing the energy and eventually to obtain a mechanically stable ground-state characterized by a shear-deformed parallelepiped supercell. Nevertheless, a three-/eight-fold reduction of the elastic constant C₅₅ (when compared with the bulk value) is identified as the crucial weakest link of the mechanical stability for the studied GB states. We have also partly stabilized this GB interface state by Al substituent replacing Si atoms at the GB.
Next, an origin of this elastic softening and instability of the rectangular-parallelepiped Σ5(210)^Si,Ni GB variant is discussed in terms of chemical inter-atomic interactions described by the crystal orbital Hamilton population (COHP). Lattice-dynamics properties represented by projected force-constant matrices on the unit vector along each bonding direction were considered as well. Such complex analysis reveals a weak interaction far from the GB interface between the Ni atoms in the 3^rd plane and the Si atoms in the 5^th plane. However, this bond weakening is a consequence of a very strong interaction between the Si atoms in the GB plane and Ni atoms in the 3rd plane off the GB interface. The same strong interaction was not observed when Si atom at the GB is replaced by Al. Thus the strong interaction near the GB plane makes this GB variant mechanically unstable.
Our study clearly shows the importance of anisotropic elastic-constant treatment as well as interatomic-interaction analysis for next studies of interface states close to GBs when determining origin of their mechanical (in-)stability. The sensitivity of tensorial elasto-chemical properties, which was additionally illustrated by studying the impact caused by Al atoms substituting Si atoms at the GB interface plane, paves a new way towards a solute-controlled design of GB-associated interface states with controlled tensorial elastic properties and stability.

For decades, diamond has shown superior properties that make it desirable for novel electronic materials. However, fabricating large size high quality single crystal diamond wafers faces multiple challenges. Lateral outgrowth and mosaic growth of CVD diamond make it highly possible for large size diamond wafers to be realized. Mesoscale characterization on the interface and surface of the grown CVD diamond is key to understanding how to eventually fabricate large size high quality single crystal diamond wafers.

In this work, mosaic and lateral single crystal diamonds were grown by Microwave Plasma Assisted Chemical Vapor Deposition (MPACVD) on High Pressure High Temperature (HPHT) seeds and characterized by a micro x-ray diffraction (µ-XRD) mapping technique with a 300 µm slit to show the evolution of diamond crystal structure information during growth and provide feedback on growth strategies. By understanding how crystal structure evolves during growth we can understand the mechanisms linking processing conditions the structure and properties of grown material.

Our results demonstrate after growth and regrowth by MPACVD, variation in the structure and distributions of these variations evolves towards homogeneity. Measurements of the (400) phase for mosaic and lateral growth samples by high-resolution x-ray rocking curve (HRXRC) and 2θ-ω µ-mapping technique. The overall misorientation of the merging CVD layers is shown to decrease with the regrowth from 0.225° (bottom layer plate) to 0.092° (uppermost layer plate). µ-HRXRC mapping results show a low mosaicity and μ-HR 2θ-ω scans show a low average Full Width at Half Maximum (FWHM), 0.032° and high crystallinity. Typically lateral outgrowth shows a uniform misorientation at the growth front, ranging from 0.092° to 0.035°. In contrast, our mosaically joined samples show a non-uniform distribution in misorientation at the merging interface, displaying a biaxial deviation parallel and perpendicular to the interface. The preliminary data shows that after regrowth, this biaxial distribution tends toward uniformity, with regions of independent preferred orientation overtaken by a single, new orientation. We will discuss this phenomenon in terms of step-flow overgrowth and energetically favorable states of the diamond crystalline phase during epitaxial lateral overgrowth in the extreme plasma environment.

Continuum models will be critical towards the computational characterization of the diffuse layer at electrochemical interfaces. Recently, a number of different approaches have been proposed. Here we will present a new class of methods based on a planar averaged approximation and the Gouy-Chapman theory for electrochemical interfaces [1]. These models potentially constitute a powerful set of tools for investigating one-dimensional surfaces, with several advantages over their more generalized counterparts. They exploit the analytic solution for the one-dimensional complex electrostatic problem, are computationally inexpensive, and are not affected by any imposed periodicity. Charged metal solvent interfaces and their experimentally recorded differential capacitance values present a benchmark to compare candidate models. We will present the theory, implementation, testing, and applications.

[1] F. Nattino, M. Truscott, N. Marzari, and O. Andreussi "Continuum models of the electrochemical diffuse layer in electronic-structure calculations" under review by J. Chem. Phys. (2018), available at https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09797

Ethylene is a high-value chemical that is an essential building block for polymers and other designer molecules. Producing ethylene from ethane (a more plentiful feedstock) is, therefore, a high-value activity, but one that requires a lot of energy. The use of catalysts to more efficiently perform chemical reactions, for example by lowering energy barriers for reaction pathways, therefore has the potential to save billions of dollars annually at production scales. The oxide Mo-V-Nb-Te-O (M1) is one such catalyst, but one whose efficacy degrades at elevated temperatures. In this work, we aim to understand the dynamics of ethylene on the surface of M1 to inform strategies for improving M1’s efficacy or lower its optimal operating temperature. Specifically, we develop tools that facilitate molecular modeling of organic molecules including ethane and ethylene on M1 surfaces and use them to study surface dynamics. We implement a combination of the OPLS-AA and UFF force fields and measure surface residency times of ethylene and ethane as a function of temperature. These measurements show ethane preferentially adsorb near Vanadium and Tellurium sites, informing strategies for increasing adsorption selectivity towards Vanadium. We investigate candidates for surface patterning and discuss anticipated changes in catalyst effectiveness.

Hybrid organic-inorganic perovskites (HOIPs) such as methylammonium lead iodide (MAPI) and methylammonium lead bromide (MAPBr) have attracted much attention as solution-processed semiconductors that could be used in high performance optoelectronic devices such as photovoltaics, light emitting diodes, lasers, and X-Ray detectors. These materials exhibit long carrier diffusion lengths, large absorption coefficients, and high photoluminescence quantum yields. For commercial applications, however, HOIPs suffer from significant humidity-induced degradation. Here, we report the stabilizing and destabilizing effect of B-site substitutional doping in HOIP materials, and discuss how surface doping at the B-site can induce preferential crystal orientation.
Substitutional doping of MAPI with Bi was found to lead to a stabilizing effect at high humidity, but a destabilizing effect at lower humidity. With 5 mol% Bi in MAPI, UV-Vis-NIR absorptance spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction (XRD) showed that at 90% relative humidity, the films took 72 h to fully degrade compared to 24 h for the undoped MAPI films. At the lower humidity of 60% RH, the undoped MAPI films were more stable than the Bi-doped MAPI films. The MAPI films were stable for 14 days; whereas, the Bi-doped MAPI films degraded after only 10 days.
While MAPI is a promising photovoltaic material, certain tandem cell and LED applications require wider band gap HOIPs, such as MAPBr. However, the random orientation of grains in MAPBr thin films made from commonly employed synthetic methods may hinder these devices’ effectiveness. Here we report the incorporation of Ag into MAPBr films induces a preferential (100) crystallographic orientation on any substrate and increases crystal grain size of thin film cubic MAPBr. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS), and time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (TOF-SIMS) revealed that Ag accumulates at the interfaces of the MAPBr film, which appears to be the reason for the preferred orientation of the film on the substrate. Elemental maps and grazing incidence wide angle X-ray scattering (GIWAXS) of the Ag-doped films also showed the emergence of secondary methylammonium silver bromide phases. These regions in the film could create recombination centers in photovoltaic devices (PVs). PVs were fabricated with MAPBr and Ag-doped MAPBr films. Despite the differences in crystallographic orientation and crystal grain size, there were no observed differences in the performance of these perovskite PVs up to 2 mol% Ag incorporation, at which point PV performance became worse with increasing silver content.

Cholesterol is an amphiphilic molecule present in cellular membranes at different concentrations depending on the cell’s role and functionality. It is uniquely structured as its hydrophilic head is much smaller than its bulky hydrophobic tail. When present in a phospholipid leaflet cholesterol behaves according to the umbrella model, filling the gaps in between phospholipid molecules and reducing the area per lipid. This provides an ordering and condensing effect for the membrane. The effect of cholesterol on cell membranes has been investigated and it has been seen to minimize its permeability and move the membrane from a liquid disordered to a liquid ordered state. These mechanics may be measured through the measurement of the interfacial tensions of lipid monolayers and bilayers with and without cholesterol.
In this work, the droplet interface bilayer (DIB) technique is used to investigate cholesterol’s effect on surface tension and the membrane structure. Based on lipid-coated aqueous droplets adhering in an oil medium, the DIB method enables linking droplets mechanics and membrane mechanics for interpreting changes in the membrane structure through droplet-droplet adhesion and the angles of contact at the droplet intersections. It is a purely fluidic method where the droplets are minimally constrained and the membrane is free to expand dependent on the interfacial tensions. By observing the changes in the droplets’ adherence while measuring the membrane properties through electrophysiology, one can calculate membrane’s tension, specific capacitance, applied stress and resulting strain.
Pendant drop tensiometry was used to investigate the changes in the monolayer surface tension with increasing amount of cholesterol. Higher monolayer tensions were observed with increasing cholesterol concentrations, along with increasing bilayer tension and adhesion energy. Next, membrane properties with varying cholesterol were measured. The membranes exhibited a non-linear reduction in thickness with the increasing cholesterol mole fractions. To understand cholesterol’s impact on membrane’s structure and rigidity, an electric field was gradually increased across the membrane until failure providing membrane compression beyond the equilibrium dimensions. The membrane thickness along with the corresponding electrical stress were measured for each voltage. Plotting the pressure versus membrane thickness for different cholesterol concentrations shows that cholesterol does not affect the critical stress at failure. However, it significantly reduces membrane thinning. Adding 30% cholesterol reduces membrane thinning by more than half. This indicated that cholesterol enhances the stiffness of the membrane, making it more rigid and resistant to transverse compression.

Controllability of the shape, size, and internal structure of block copolymer (BCP) particles as well as their uniformity is crucial to determine their utility and functionality in the practical applications. Here, we demonstrate the particle restructuring by solvent engineering (PRSE) strategy that combines membrane emulsification and solvent annealing processes, to produce monodisperse particles using functional BCPs with controlled size, shape, and inner structure. Importantly, the advantage of our PRSE approach is the general applicability to various types of functional BCPs including polystyrene-block-poly(1,4-butadiene) (PS-b-PB), polystyrene-block-polydimethylsiloxane (PS-b-PDMS), and polystyrene-block-poly(4-vinylpyridine) (PS-b-P4VP). PRSE starts with producing monodisperse BCP spheres in a wide range of particle size (from hundreds of nanometers to tens of several microns) using membrane emulsification, followed by successful transformation to shape-anisotropic BCP particles by solvent annealing under neutral wetting condition. Monodispersity of particle size was maintained during the PRSE, and the shape transformations to both prolate and oblate shaped ellipsoids were successfully achieved. Our approach was effective in controlling the aspect ratio (AR) of particles over wide ranges, from 1.0 - 2.5 and 1.0 - 5.0 for prolate and oblate ellipsoids, respectively. Also, observed AR of the particles was well-supported by theoretical calculation based on the model describing the particle elongation. Further investigation on the shape transformation kinetics during the PRSE revealed that the morphology transformation was driven by reorientation of BCP microdomains, whose kinetics was strongly associated with the overall molecular weight of BCP and the annealing time.

Surface energy and hydro-affinity play a significant role in device manufacturing and semiconductor processing. Surface reactivity, bonding and passivation is as critical as structure and composition for gate oxides, ohmic contact formation, heterostructures, opto-electronic and piezo-electronic device integration.

In this work, the effect of doping species upon Si(100) total surface energy, γ^T, hydro-affinity, and reactivity, is investigated for three n-type dopants, phosphorus, arsenic or antimony, and two p-type dopants, boron or gallium, [2] by new quantitative measurements via Three Liquid Contact Angle Analysis (3LCAA) [1] correlated with Ion Beam Analysis (IBA), as a function of concentration.

3LCAA and the van Oss-Chaudhury-Good (vOCG) theory yield γ^T from three interactions, the Lifshitz-van der Waals interaction energy γ^LW, the interaction energy with electron donors γ^-, and acceptors γ⁺, measured via the contact angles of three liquids.

A new automated image analysis algorithm, DROP™, [3], yields contact angles within <1° and γ^T within 3% in minutes. DROP™’s accuracy makes possible quantitative analysis of γ^T, γ^LW, γ^-, and γ⁺ as a function of doping species and concentrations.

Ion Beam Analysis (IBA) can detect oxygen coverage and elemental composition. High resolution IBA combes ��(O16, O16)�� 3.039±0.01 MeV nuclear resonance with <111> channeling detects oxygen within 5%, or about 6x10¹⁴ at/cm². Rutherford Backscattering Spectrometry (RBS) combined with <111> axial channeling can detect dopants with a sensitivity that increases quadratically with their atomic number, thus ~4x10²⁰ boron/cm³, or 1 at.%; ~4x10¹⁹ phosphorus/cm³, or 0.1 at.%; ~1x10¹⁹ gallium/cm³, or 0.02 at.%; ~1x10¹⁹ arsenic/cm³, or 0.02 at.%; and ~4x10¹⁸ antimony/cm³, or 0.01 at.% [2]. Oxygen coverage measured by IBA, along with doping levels and dopant species, can be correlated with γ^T, γ^LW, γ^-, and γ⁺ measured by 3LCAA on both as-implanted and Rapid Thermal Annealed (RTA) Si(100). Si(100) amorphizes with increasing ion dose and defect concentrations, which catalyzes native oxide formation. During RTA, Si(100) recrystallizes and incorporates dopants into substitutional lattice sites. However, native oxide formation and dopant segregation modify final native oxide composition and thickness, as well as total surface energy and the surface interactions with donors and acceptors.

Higher dopant concentrations in both p-type and n-type doped Si(100) result in larger oxygen coverage and thus thicker native oxides, as measured by IBA, and lower surface energies as measured by 3LCAA. As expected, resulting surfaces are more hydrophobic and less reactive than as-implanted Si(100).

3LCAA also finds that as Si resistivity increases, γ^T also increases, showing that lower doping concentrations result in a more hydrophilic and more reactive surface [3]. Implanted Si is then etched, which removes surface oxides, and recrystallized by RTA to electrically activate dopants, regrowing a new native oxide. Longer RTA processes cause thicker oxides to form, along with higher segregation of n-type dopants at the Si-SiO₂ interface. Hence, electrically activated n-type dopants enhance oxidation. The opposite effect is observed for recrystallized p-type doped Si, which shows thinner native oxides than as-implanted Si. 3LCAA, combined with IBA, can accurately measure changes to native oxide surface energies, hydro-affinity and reactivity as a function of dopant species and dopant concentration. These insights from 3LCAA expand understanding of dopants’ influence upon native oxide formation and of surface engineering for heterostructure formation by heteroepitaxy, conventional wafer bonding and NanoBonding™ [3].

[1] US Patents #9,018,077; #9,589,801, Herbots N. et al (2015); (2017)
[2] P. A. Cullen, Ph.D, Massachusetts Institute of Technology PhD Thesis (1991)
[3] US Patents Pending, Nicole Herbots, Saaketh Narayan, Jack Day, et al. (2018)

Ultrahigh-pressure (HP) polymorphs such as diamond exhibit unique physical properties. There are many HP polymorphs that can be recovered to the ambient pressure to be utilized in industry. However, some of the HP polymorphs that are thermodynamically stable under HP (> 10 GPa) transforms into amorphous structure or different crystalline phases during decompression. If this back-transformation can be suppressed, we can obtain some useful HP polymorphs to be utilized in future. As a possible solution, we combined the epitaxial thin film growth technique with HP synthesis method using a multi-anvil apparatus.

We first investigated a HP-phase, α-PbO₂-type titanium dioxide (α-TiO₂, orthorhombic, a = 0.454 nm, b = 0.549 nm, c = 0.491 nm). Unfortunately, most of the reported data was about the product in form of powder, and only a few reports about the fabrication of single crystals are currently available. In particular, single-phase α-TiO₂ epitaxial thin films has not been reported. In this study, we report the fabrication of the high-quality single-phase α-TiO₂(100) epitaxial thin films.

Thin films of epitaxial rutile TiO₂(100) (thickness: ~100 nm) were deposited as precursors on Al₂O₃(001) (5 mm in diameter and 0.5 mm in height) using pulsed laser deposition. HP treatment for thin films was performed using a Kawai-type multi-anvil high-pressure apparatus. The precursor thin film was heated up to 1000°C under HP of 8 GPa, and then kept for 0.5 h. After the heating step, cooling was started down to room temperature (RT), followed by decompression.

As a result, a successful single-phase α-TiO₂(100) epitaxial thin film has been obtained. It should be stressed here that rocking-curve full width at half maximum of the 200 peak showed a quite small value of 0.113°, indicating very high crystallinity. Our present study indicates that HP treatment to thin film samples allows us to fabricate high-quality HP-phase epitaxial thin films.

Nanostructured carbons are common components of electrodes used for energy-storage and
-conversion applications to impart enhanced electronic conductivity that sustains high-rate operation, to support dispersed active materials (e.g., electrocatalytic metals and oxides), and to contribute to the physical structure and integrity of the electrode. Often overlooked in the design and characterization of such electrode structures is the critical nature of electronic/chemical/physical interactions at the junction of carbon with the nanoscale phases that impart desired storage or electrocatalytic functionality. Our own experience with such multifunctional compositions shows that we still “leave on the table” too much energy and power performance as a consequence of sub-optimal interfacial design. In order to explore these fundamental questions, we step back from the complexity of 3D electrode architectures to planar electrode configurations that otherwise mimic the material characteristics of practical electrode structures. Carbon films deposited onto planar substrates by vapor-phase pyrolysis of benzene and related monomers serve as model interfaces that we then modify with charge-storing metal oxides, electroactive polymers, and metal colloids [1]. The resulting 2D interfaces are characterized by classical electroanalytical methods to determine fundamental properties such as electron-transfer rate constants and impedance-derived response times. These substrates are also amenable to interrogation by scanning probe microscopy, including in-situ monitoring of conductivity and surface morphology under potential/current control. Lessons learned from these model 2D interfaces are readily applied to the redesign of practical 3D electrode structures in next-generation electrochemical capacitors and batteries.

[1] J. F. Parker, G. E. Kamm, A. D. McGovern, P. A. DeSario, D. R. Rolison, and J. W. Long, Langmuir, 33 (2017) 9415–9425.

Myriads of electrode materials with interesting nanostructures have been fabricated for a range of electrochemical applications. Beyond the increases in their surface area, unconventional properties have been observed along with the development of new approach and methodologies to analyze and utilize such properties. For instance, once a redox-active molecule diffuses into the nanoscale cavity of the electrode, it frequently collides with the inner electrode surface before it escapes the cavity, which is termed nano-confinement effect. This effect can specifically amplify the signals of slow electron transfer reactions (e.g., glucose oxidation) and has been established as a new mechanism for sensing the target materials that have slow electron transfer kinetics.

In this study, we fabricated a Au nanopillar electrode and devised a new electrochemical platform using redox cycling reaction to utilize the nano-confinement effect of the Au nanopillar electrode, which is applicable even to the fast electron transfer reactions as demonstrated by facilitating the electrochemical reaction of a specific biomarker (i.e., pyocyanin which has fast electron transfer kinetics) of bacterial infection (i.e., Pseudomonas aeruginosa). The Au nanopillar electrode was fabricated by first treating a polymer substrate with plasma to render an array of polymer nanopillars on the substrate and then depositing Au onto the plasma-treated substrate to the appropriate thickness to form nanoscale inter-pillar space. The Au nanopillar surface was modified with the redox cycling counterpart of pyocyanin so that the pyocyanin confined in the inter-pillar space underwent repetitive cycles of reduction (by the electrode) and oxidation (by the redox cycling counterpart tethered to electrode surface) reactions resulting in the amplification of the pyocyanin signal. This redox cycling-assisted signal amplification was clearly observed with the Au nanopillar electrode with higher amplification by taller Au nanopillars while the amplification was insignificant for the flat Au electrode, demonstrating the nano-confinement effect of Au nanopillar electrodes. As a result, the sensitivity in measuring pyocyanin was improved by the Au nanopillar electrode compared with the flat Au electrode. We believe that this new platform based on the surface-bound redox cycling reaction could overcome the limit in applicability of the nano-confinement effect.

In this paper we report high voltage MOS and Schottky Diode CV techniques for silicon and SiC power devices. 4H Silicon carbide is a wide bandgap semiconductor suitable for high voltage power electronics and RF applications due to high avalanche breakdown critical electric field, and thermal conductivity. The performance of various power devices, which may include MOSFET and Static Induction Transistor (SIT), can be affected by the deep level traps in the substrate and the oxide interfacial defects. We have characterized deep level trap (High Voltage Schottky Diode HF CV) and oxide interface trap densities (High Voltage HF MOS CV), measured the device channel doping profile for both 4H SiC and silicon, gate metal workfunction, and simulated the effects on DC/AC performance.

TCAD simulation is done for a high voltage RF SIT. Pinch voltage (V_Pinch, as defined by the gate voltage required to turn the device off for a certain applied drain voltage) may be affected by the interface charges. Generally speaking, the V_Pinch is very sensitive to the channel doping concentration.

If the oxide / SiC interface charges are positive charges, the V_Pinch is higher. Please notice the gain is also reduced – this may affect the AC performance.

The depletion width is derived from converting the measured Schottky Diode high frequency CV to Depletion Width vs. Voltage. The 1/C² vs. V plot may also be used to extract the gate metal work function.

SIT gate metal workfunction is extracted to be 5.42V.

SIT channel doping profile is generated by converting the high voltage HF Schottky Diode CV to 1/C² vs. V plot. When the frequency varies from 100 KHz to 1MHz, there is a small shift of the extracted doping profile. The difference between the measured doping concentrations at these voltages may be caused by the deep level traps in the 4H SiC epitaxial layer. When the test frequency is lower than 100 KHz, there is no significant shift. The SIT channel doping profile is extracted from the HF Schottky Diode CV. The deep level trap density is the difference between the two doping profiles.

The Surface Potential at the thermal oxide / 4H SiC interface vs. gate voltage is derived by the integration technique for the measured HF MOS CV.

Oxide / Silicon or 4H SiC interface trap density may be extracted by comparing the measured high-frequency MOS CV and a theoretical, defect-free high frequency MOS CV:

D_it (eV^-1×cm^-2) = 1/q ×C_ox × d(Delta_V_G)/ dØ_S (1)

Where q is the electron charge, C_ox is the oxide capacitance, D_it is the oxide interface defect density, Delta_V_G is the gate voltage difference between measured and theoretical HF MOS CVs, corresponding to the same capacitance in the CV plot, and Ø_S is the surface potential at the SiC / oxide interface. Surface Potential vs. Delta_V_G and Interface Trap Density vs. Surface Potential plots are presented in this paper.

Summary:

Oxide / Si or 4H SiC interface trap density, deep level trap density, device channel doping profile, gate metal workfunction are characterized with high voltage (100V), high frequency (up to 1MHz) MOS and Schottky Diode CV techniques. TCAD simulation shows the effects of these defects on DC and AC performance. The deep level trap density of 4H SiC (average) = 1×10¹⁵ cm^-3 about 1 order of magnitude higher than lightly doped silicon (= 1×10¹⁴ cm^-3). The interface state density of 4H SiC is (average) = 4×10¹¹ cm^-2 eV^-1, also about 10 times higher than silicon.

Direct wafer bonding is replacing hetero-epitaxy in semiconductor-based hetero-structures such as tandem solar cells and sensors. Bonding of Li-based piezo-electronic perovskites, specifically LiTaO₃ (100) and LiNbO₃ (100) to Si (100) and a-quartz SiO₂ (100) is investigated because these perovskites exhibit unique acoustic and piezoelectric properties used in Surface Acoustic Wave (SAW) devices. A direct wafer bonding process called NanoBonding^TM [1] can bond LiTaO₃ (100) or LiNbO₃ (100) to Si using surface energy modification in ambient, low temperature (<220°C) conditions with neither plasma activation nor UHV.
The principle underlying NanoBonding^TM is to cross-bond at the molecular scale two surfaces over large interfacial domains, creating a 2-D bonding interphase. NanoBonding™ uses surface engineering to modify surface energy to promote electronic exchange during contact and bond activation.
Electron exchange is promoted between the surfaces by engineering them as hydrophilic-hydrophobic pairs, with each surface in a far-from-equilibrium state. The hydro-affinity of the initial surfaces is measured quantitatively using surface energy analysis via 3LCAA and the van Oss-Chaudhury-Good (vOCG) theory. Next, the hydro-affinity is modified to bring the surface far-from-equilibrium - from a hydrophobic to a hydrophilic state or vice-versa to bring the paired complementary far-from-equilibrium states.
NanoBonding™ includes planarization of both surfaces at three scales - nano-, micro-, and macro-scale. Creating extended atomic terraces by etching and reducing macroscopic wafer warp enable for direct mechanical contacting over large surface areas (Nano-contacting).
After Nano-contacting, cross-bonding is activated via electromagnetic radiation, such as heat, or ultra-violet illumination, or via isotropic pressurization using steam [1].
The surface energy ��^T is thus measured by 3LCAA on the “as received” LiTaO₃(100), LiNbO₃(100), Si(100), and a-quartz SiO₂(100) 4” wafers from TDC Corp. The uniformity of ��^T across the 4” LiTaO3 wafer is mapped in 10 locations in a Class 100 hood using 10 µL droplets. The three liquids used are 18 MΩ DI water, glycerin, and α-bromo-naphthalene. ��^T is then computed via the vOCG theory from the three interaction components that yield ��^T, the LifeChat-Van der Waals molecular interaction energy ��^LW, the interaction energy of the surface with donors, ��⁺, and with acceptors (��^-). Increasing the values of ��^- and ��⁺ promotes ionic bonding, electronic exchange and molecular cross-bonding.
��^T across the 4” LiTaO₃ wafer averages 43.3 ± 2 mJ/m², thus native LiTaO₃ surfaces are hydrophobic. Native Si(100) surfaces, by comparison, are always hydrophilic and have a typical surface energy of 53.0 ± 0.2 mJ/m², as measured over several 4” wafers. However, ��^T uniformity Si(100) 4” wafers is better by an order of magnitude than on LiTaO₃. Several NanoBonding™ experiments were then conducted with LiTaO₃ (100) on Si (100), and a-quartz SiO₂ (100) where the hydroaffinity of LiTaO₃ was reversed to hydrophilic by etching with aqueous HF and the hydroaffinity of native Si (100) reversed to hydrophobic.
Ion Beam Analysis and XPS is used to investigate the surface stoichiometry of LiTaO₃(100) before and after etching to correlate to ��^T and NanoBonding™ results.

[1] US Patents #9,018,077; #9,589,801, Herbots N. et al. (2015); (2017)

The deformation behavior of nanostructured metallic multilayers has been extensively investigated because of their superior mechanical properties, primarily via nanoindentation and micropillar compression experiments. Here, we report tensile measurements on a Cu/Co nanolaminate with 4 nm layer spacing. The nanolaminate was synthesized using magnetron sputtering at room temperature and tensile loading-unloading cycles were performed on freestanding samples parallel to the Cu/Co interface using MEMS devices. Cross-sectional TEM and XRD measurements showed the presence of a coherent Cu/Co interface. The nanolaminates exhibit a flow strength as high as 2 GPa and failure strains of 3-4%. Interestingly, significant inelastic strain recovery was observed both during and after unloading, with further recovery occurring upon heating. In addition, the stress-strain slope during the initial stages of unloading was considerably higher than the expected elastic modulus, suggesting the presence of a super modulus effect due to the large coherency strain.

Electric double layer capacitors, or supercapacitors, have high theoretical capacities and faster charge/discharge rates than Li-ion batteries. Because they store charge via electrostatic interactions between the electrode surface and ions in the electrolyte, increased specific surface area of electrode materials will increase the theoretical storage capacity of next-generation devices. Nanofiber-based electrodes have fewer issues with agglomeration and better long-term stability than nanoparticle-based electrodes, while maintaining extremely high surface area to volume ratios. As a potential electrode material, Mn₂O₃ is low-cost, naturally abundant, and environmentally benign. Electrospinning with subsequent thermal decomposition is a facile fabrication method for creating Mn₂O₃ nanofibers. Composite fibers consisting of a coordination polymer, polyvinylpyrrolidone, and oxide precursor, manganese acetate tetrahydrate, are electrospun. Calcination is used to burn out the polymer matrix and convert the salt to manganese oxide while retaining the high aspect ratio fiber morphology.

Although Mn₂O₃ nanofibers have been prepared by thermal decomposition of a coordinating polymer-oxide precursor composite fiber, the influence of calcination conditions on specific surface area have not been well-explored. The proposed work will examine the effects of calcination time, temperature, and environmental composition on fiber surface areas and corresponding electrochemical capacitance as compared to nanoparticle-based electrodes. Thermal analysis will be performed with thermogravimetry and differential scanning calorimetry to determine glass transition and decomposition temperatures of the as-spun composite fibers. The post-calcination fibers will be examined with X-ray diffraction to confirm phase and obtain information on crystallite size. Scanning electron microscopy will be used for morphological examination and qualitative examination of porosity resulting from changes in calcination parameters. To quantify changes in specific surface area, the Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) method will be used on calcined fibers and compared to values measured for nanoparticles prepared from the oxide precursor. Increased surface area detected by BET may not necessarily be accessible to ions in the electrolyte, so to evaluate the accessible surface area, the fibers and particles will be processed into working electrodes. Electrochemical analysis including cyclic voltammetry and linear voltammetry will be utilized to assess the accessible surface area of fiber-based vs. particle-based electrodes based on measured capacitance. Preliminary results have shown that modifications to the gas composition and calcination time result in varied porosity, surface features, and cross-sectional morphologies. An understanding of the relationship between processing conditions and fiber morphology will allow for tunability of enhanced surface area, electrochemical capacitance, and supercapacitor performance.

HfSiO₄ (hafnon) can be used as a layer environmental barrier coating (EBC) materials placed between silicon dioxide and hafnia. Hafnon has a good lattice thermal expansion matching between silica and hafnia and can prevent oxygen diffusion in EBCs, thereby potentially lengthening the lifetime of EBCs. In this work, we conduct a comprehensive investigation of mechanical, thermodynamic and thermal transport properties of hafnon using first-principles density functional theory (DFT) calculations and compare our results to experiments performed on this material. The volumetric coefficients of thermal expansion (CTE) calculated by the quasi-harmonic approximation are in the range 9.18 - 19.07×10^-6 K^-1, when the temperature increases from 300 to 1500 K, in agreement with X-Ray Diffraction and dilatometer measurements. The thermal conductivity is nearly 10 Wm^-1K^-1 at room temperature (RT) using the Boltzmann transport theory. The time-domain thermoreflectance technique utilized to measure thermal conductivity yields 12.4 Wm^-1K^-1. The mechanical properties, such as bulk modulus and elastic constants are also compared between the first-principles calculations and the RT nanoindentation technique. This study validates our computational approach and can be used to further study thermomechanical properties of other high-temperature oxides.

Medical micropumps that utilize Magnetic Shape Memory (MSM) alloys are small, powerful alternatives to conventional pumps because of their unique pumping mechanism. This mechanism, the transfer of fluid through the emulation of esophageal contractions, is enabled by the magneto-mechanical properties of a shape memory alloy and a sealant material. Because the adhesion between the sealant and the alloy determines the performance of the pump and because the nature of this interface is not well characterized, an understanding of sealant-alloy interactions represents a fundamental component of engineering better solid state micropumps in particular, and metal-polymer interfaces in general. In this work we develop computational modeling techniques for investigating how the properties of sealant materials determine their adhesive properties with alloys. In particular, we develop a molecular model of the sealant material polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) and parameterize its interactions with Ni-Mn-Ga alloy surfaces for use in molecular dynamics simulations. We perform equilibrium molecular dynamics simulations of the PDMS/Ni-Mn-Ga interface to iteratively improve the reliability, numerical stability, and accuracy of the models and associated data workflows. In sum, we develop a model combining OPLS-UA and UFF force fields for simulating PDMS/Ni-Mn-Ga interfaces and demonstrate its promise for informing the design of more reliable MSM micropumps.

A computational method has been developed to calculate the pressure required for grain boundaries to overcome the pinning effects of second phase particles. Multiple Pt bicrystals were constructed with small concentrations (<= 0.5 atom %) of Au segregated to the boundary using the Monte Carlo method. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulations employing the artificial driving force method were carried out on said boundaries to measure the relationship between boundary type, solute concentration, and boundary velocity. It was found that for a given solute concentration there exists a critical driving pressure necessary for grain boundary motion to occur. Sub-critical driving pressures resulted in flexing of the grain boundary about the pinning precipitates, but with no large scale grain boundary movement. Above critical driving pressures resulted in grain boundary motion although the amount of time required for grain boundaries to break loose from the pinning structures varied considerably. At solute concentrations of 0.1%, solute segregation to the boundary did not occur. The resulting lack of precipitates caused boundaries to behave no differently from pure boundaries, although at real timescales a reduction in mobility would be exhibited because of solute drag. Development of a method to quantify the effect of different solute concentrations on the stability of different grain boundaries will prove useful for understanding phenomena such as abnormal grain growth, as well as aid in the engineering of stabilized nanocrystalline alloys.

The ice accretion on metal surfaces in cold environments occurs through the process of water droplets freezing, which spans a wide range of length scales necessitates a multiscale computational analysis that can link the atomic-scale activities to its micrometer-level behavior.
Firstly, in this work, with aim of understanding the structure of grain boundary of polycrystal ice, we establish a computational protocol for measuring the energy on the grain boundary of bi-crystal ice by performing a coarse-grained atomistic simulation. Secondly, we apply this procedure to the bi-crystal ice in a complex chemical environment. Results show that the microstructure of the grain boundary of the ice is sensitive to the concentration of Na+ and Cl-. Then, to determine the parameter among several, droplet size, metal surface roughness, and chemistry, that controls the grain structure, product phases (cubic or hexagonal ice) in polycrystalline ice accreted on metal surfaces, coarse-grained atomistic simulations of water droplet freezing on an oxidized aluminum substrate are also conducted. By tracking the contact line position and the contact angle throughout the image sequences of the snapshots from the simulations, the contact angle change during a water droplet freezing can be monitored as a function of the real time. It is qualitatively shown that the contact angle decreases when the volume fraction of the ice crystals in a water droplet increase.

Ultrathin transition-metal oxide and dichalcogenide layers ranging from monolayer (2D) thickness to a few nanometers, exhibit a wide range of distinct physical properties when compared to their bulk counterparts. There is growing interest in understanding the crystallization behavior of these materials when approaching the 2D regime, in order to optimize the growth of already observed phases and realize the synthesis of predicted ones. Information on nucleation rates and critical nucleus size in homogeneous nucleation processes, the relative importance of various defects in heterogeneous nucleation, grain growth rates, and interface evolution in the 2D regime is highly sought to enable interface engineering in 2D materials. Tungsten trioxide (WO₃) is a particularly interesting system to study in ultrathin configurations because it exhibits a wealth of crystallization-dependent properties. In addition to its catalytic and ion-intercalation derived properties, such as charge storage and electrochromic behavior, it also shows evidence of a superconducting phase, an insulator-to-metal transition that may be achieved via electrostatic gating, and a transition from the conventional monoclinic, orthorhombic, and hexagonal polytypes observed in bulk and nanophases, to a stable free-standing, 2D single-layer honeycomb-like structure that is semiconducting and predicted to have a very high cohesive energy (10.5 eV) as well as one of the highest in-plane stiffness among metal oxide and dichalcogenide 2D materials (250 N/m). In this work we investigate the crystallization behavior of ultrathin WO₃ formed after oxidation of tungsten (W), using X-ray diffraction (XRD), atomic force microscopy (AFM), and impedance spectroscopy (IS). Polycrystalline W films of 10-nm thickness, deposited by atomic layer deposition (ALD) on n-type (001)-oriented silicon substrates, were annealed in oxidizing environment in a tube furnace at temperatures ranging from 275°C to 600°C. XRD on films annealed at 600°C shows the formation of the monoclinic phase of WO₃. The XRD patterns for annealed films are dominated by the sharp monoclinic (200) reflection at 2θ = 24.45°, indicating that the WO₃ crystallites exhibit preferential orientation with their [200] axis aligned perpendicular to the substrate. AFM shows surface morphology comprising distorted cubic-like features consistent with the underlying monoclinic structure observed by XRD. The AFM scans clearly reveal that the films are dominated by out-of-plane interfaces normal to the [200] direction of the WO₃ crystallites. At temperatures above 500°C, large crystallites are observed in the AFM scans, with heights in the 10-30 nm range, indicating significant 3D restructuring due to crystal growth after oxidation. The crystallite number density exhibits an Arrhenius relationship with the annealing temperature with an activation energy of 110 kJ/mol. Impedance spectroscopy measurements between 1 Hz and 7 MHz on thin film samples after the deposition of top nickel contacts, show Nyquist impedance arcs that depend on the annealing temperature and ambient. The impedance of samples with various WO₃ thicknesses, degrees of 3D restructuring, and crystallite number densities are analyzed in terms of equivalent circuits that yield the “grain interface” and “grain interior” contributions to the resistance and capacitance of the samples. The dependence of these electrical characteristics is compared with the structural features obtained by XRD and AFM to identify distinct kinetic regimes present during W oxidation, as well as crystal nucleation and growth of the WO₃ ultrathin layers.

The structural components of a very High Temperature Reactor (VHTR) are exposed to trace amounts of gaseous elements and moisture. These impurities can adversely affect the integrity of the reactor structural components. Among the impurity gases, carbon-bearing gases – methane, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide – have significant detrimental effects on the protective oxide scales, which grow on nickel-based alloy surfaces, leading to carburization of the alloy.

In this work, we investigate the effect of carburizing gases on the stability of chromium oxide scales using electronic structure simulations. We have utilized Kohn-Sham density functional theory (DFT) as implemented in the Vienna ab initio simulation package (VASP) with the generalized gradient approximation; to describe the strong correlations between the d electrons of chromium, we have utilized the DFT+U approach. The molecular structure of the oxide surface without the gases is first optimized structurally. Fully relaxed carburizing gases are then allowed to be adsorbed on to the surface. We finally employ ab initio molecular dynamics (AIMD) simulations at high temperatures (up to 1200 K) to calculate the structural and dynamic properties of the interface, and to elucidate the mechanisms of thermal stability of the interface region at different temperatures and impurity coverage of the surface.

References
[1] Young, D. J. and J. Zhang (2018). "Alloy Corrosion by Hot CO₂ Gases." JOM 70 (8): 1493-1501.
[2] Funk, S., T. Nurkic, B. Hokkanen and U. Burghaus (2007). "CO2 adsorption on Cr(110) and Cr2O3(0001)/Cr(110)." Applied Surface Science 253 (17): 7108-7114.

Segregation of the alloying elements at the Grain boundaries (GBs) in a polycrystalline materials leads to a nanoscale chemical and structural variations along the GB region that can significantly alter the material’s performance. Hence, the experimental investigation of the atomic structure and chemistry of the grain boundaries by resolving the sites and chemical identities of the atoms comprising the interface is crucial to fully understand the implication of the atomic segregation phenomenon. Herein, we present the atomic scale analysis of ordered-structures induced by segregation of Cu atoms in Al 7075 alloy GBs along with the detailed examination of microstructural features (texture and grain boundary character distribution) by employing advanced microscopic characterization techniques: STEM-HAADF imaging, spectroscopic (EDS and EELS) analysis, and scanning precession electron diffraction (PED).
The <111> strong texture and dominant low coincidence site lattice (CSL) GBs were revealed in the films. Results demonstrated the segregation of Cu in all types of GBs, but with varying segregation patterns. Atomic-scale structure of each type of GBs showed two types of Cu GB segregation behaviors namely, point (highly segregated atomic column surrounded by low segregated columns, misorientation < 28^o) and parallel array (two highly segregated columns opposite to each other across the interface surrounded by low segregated columns, misorientation > 28^o). In addition to the single atom-interstitial hollow site (point) segregation behavior (predicted in theoretical studies and assumed to analyze the segregation effects), substitutional core site segregation of two columns of Cu atoms forming an ordered-structures with a parallel array of segregating atoms along the interface has been demonstrated. This is the first time that this type of parallel array segregation behavior has been reported. Furthermore, based on intensity profiles and scanning transmission electron microscopy Z-contrast principle, non-uniformly (high and low) segregated mixed atomic columns were predicted at the grain boundaries. We believe the knowledge of this type of experimental insight of the atomic scale arrangements of adsorbate on the GBs can potentially help to develop strategies for engineering the design of alloy compositions.

Zinc oxide (ZnO) is one of promising semiconductors for numerous (opto)electronic applications because of excellent properties such as a wide band gap, a high exciton binding energy, and large piezoelectric coupling coefficients. ZnO crystallizes in the wurtzite hexagonal structure, which forms the polar c-plane and non-polar a and m planes. ZnO thin films of different preferential crystal orientations exhibit different properties, which leads to various applications.
In ZnO films grown by chemical vapor deposition (CVD) techniques, the crystal orientation is mainly influenced by the orientations of the nucleation layer, which is, in turn, affected by diffusion of atoms on the substrate surface during film growth. Several parameters affect the diffusion process such as oxidation reactions, type of substrates, growth temperatures, and gas flow rates. In the growth of metal oxide films by CVD, oxidation rate can be controlled by varying the supply amounts of oxygen and metal sources.
Mist-CVD is one of the non-vacuum metal oxide film growth techniques¹ capable of controlling the oxygen and metal supply amounts precisely. The precise control of the oxygen/metal ratios was realized by using the mist-CVD system with two solution chambers² storing oxygen and metal sources (H₂O and Zn precursor in this case) separately. In this work, we found strong dependences of the crystal orientations, growth rates, and surface morphologies on the [H₂O]/[Zn] ratios in the ZnO films grown by the two chamber system. The equilibrium reaction of thermal decomposition of the Zn precursor was enhanced by addition of H₂O leading to an initial increase in the growth rate with the [H₂O]/[Zn] ratio. However, excessive addition of H₂O caused a decrease in the growth rate. Moreover, H₂O also influences the film crystal orientation. The diffusion of zinc and oxygen reactive atoms on the substrate surface during film formation was influenced by the [H₂O]/[Zn] ratios, which resulted in different ZnO preferential growth orientation and film surface morphology.
The details about fabrication of the ZnO films using the mist-CVD system with two solution chambers and a plausible ZnO film growth mechanism with different [H₂O]/[Zn] ratios will be presented in the conference.
References

[1] T. Kawaharamura, Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 53, 05FF08 (2014).
[2] G.T. Dang, T. Yasuoka, Y. Tagashira, T. Tadokoro, W. Theiss, T. Kawaharamura, Appl.Phys. Lett. 113, 062102 (2018).

Electric double-layer capacitors (EDLCs), also known as supercapacitors, are energy storage devices that deliver high power densities and long cycle lives but exhibit lower energy densities than Li-ion batteries. Improving the energy density of EDLCs without sacrificing their power density or lifetime is desirable for numerous energy storage applications. In order to rationally design higher energy and power density devices, an improved understanding of how electrolyte and electrode properties affect the performance of EDLCs is critical. Recently the use of ionic liquid mixtures as electrolytes has been experimentally reported to improve EDLC performance under certain conditions. However, existing theoretical and computational work on ionic liquid mixtures in EDLCs remains limited, and there remains a need for detailed understanding of how ionic liquid mixture electrolytes affect EDLC performance.

Using all-atom molecular dynamics simulations, we study the nanoscale adsorption behavior of mixtures of ionic liquids comprised of 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium (EMIM⁺), bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide (TFSI^-), and tetrafluoroborate (BF₄^-) ions near planar carbon electrodes carrying various surface charges that mimic externally applied voltages. Near uncharged electrodes, we find that ion-electrode van der Waals interactions have a significant impact on the relative population of different ions in the first interfacial layer. By characterizing ion densities within a few nanometers of charged electrodes, we find that charging of the electrodes leads to greater overall changes in cumulative density of the smaller ion in each pure ionic liquid compared to the larger ion, as the larger ions tend to instead reorient and locally restructure close to the interface. Finally, in ionic liquid mixtures we identify an effective anion exchanging phenomenon near negatively charged electrodes that enhances counter-ion adsorption and provides a mechanism for capacitance enhancement. More broadly, our observation of modest capacitance differences between the ionic liquid compositions suggests that achieving substantially higher energy densities will ultimately also require tuning the structure and properties of the electrodes.

Grain boundaries (GBs) migrate via the motion of disconnections (line defects in the GB that have both step and dislocation character). While the motion of symmetric tilt boundaries via this mechanism is reasonably straightforward, application to more general GBs requires additional assumptions. In this poster, we report the results of molecular dynamics (MD) simulations of the motion of asymmetric GBs. In particular, we examine the faceting of migrating asymmetric GBs. In some cases, faceting may occur during migration even when no faceting is observed in the stationary case. We analyze the MD results in the context of a disconnection description of GB migration. Finally, we discuss implications of dynamic GB faceting on grain growth.

Thermotropic polymers own thermally tunable transparency which have shown applications in intelligent solar control coating, privacy windows, displays, and optical/thermal sensors. Usually, thermotropic polymer systems are constructed by physically dispersing phase transition materials in transparent hosting materials. However, they usually possess bad interfaces either between the dispersion and the matrix, or between the thermotropic system and the supporting substrates (e.g., glass), resulting in poor mechanical properties, weak interfaces to substrates, or bad long-term stability. Herein, we demonstrate a novel chemically interconnected thermotropic polymer, which is obtained by reacting dodecanedioic acid (DDA) with glycerol. In the system, some of DDA molecules were crosslinked to form a polyester network, poly(glycerol-dodecanoate) (PGD). Other grafted but non-crosslinked DDA molecules form semi-crystalline domains which possess a solid-liquid phase transition within the PGD matrix. The phase transition offers the resulting hybrid materials with tunable optical transparency. In addition, when applied for window coating, it results in tough interfacial bonding to glass substrates with toughness of > 6910 J m^-2 below its transition temperature and > 135 J m^-2 above its transition temperature. It increases the impact-resistance of the window by multiple times.

For the last several decades Time-of-flight Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (ToF-SIMS) became a prime tool for chemical characterization of wide range of materials and systems with sub-micrometer spatial and nanometer depth resolution. However, it lacks characterization of the morphological, physical and functional properties of the studied sample. This issue can be addressed by combination with Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM). Such combined multimodal AFM/ToF-SIMS platform enables a nanoscale characterization of both chemical and physical properties of the sample along with its surface morphology. In this case, chemical information acquired by the ToF-SIMS can be correlated with functional response measured by the AFM. Furthermore, it opens pathway for chemical characterization of the local materials behavior on the nanoscale, when local chemical phenomena induced by the physical fields of the AFM tip (e.g. mechanical or electric) are characterized by the ToF-SIMS.
Here we utilize commercial AFM/ToF-SIMS platform to explore interplay of chemical and physical properties in ferroelectrics during polarization switching in lead zirconate titanate (PZT, PbZr_0.2Ti_0.8O₃) thin films. Using this multimodal imaging platform, we demonstrated that chemical phenomena plays significant role in ferroelectric switching process. Specifically, we found that local ferroelectric switching by the AFM tip, significantly alters the chemical composition in the 3-nm-thick surface layer of the sample, forming reversible concentration wave, of Pb⁺ ions. Furthermore, investigations of the polarization cycling in the PZT sample with copper electrodes, showed penetration of the copper cations deep into the PZT structure. This explains ferroelectric fatigue phenomenon, leading to decrease in spontaneous polarization during spontaneous polarization cycling.
Altogether, explored chemical phenomena associated with ferroelectric switching will enhance fundamental understanding of ferroelectric phenomena and aid in the practical application of ferroelectrics in devices.
This research was conducted at the Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, which is a DOE Office of Science User Facility and using instrumentation within ORNL's Materials Characterization Core provided by UT-Battelle, LLC under Contract No. DE-AC05-00OR22725 with the U.S. Department of Energy.

One of our goals in Bardeen’s group is to explore the possibility of using photochromic molecules to regulate photo-adhesion. We have used various molecules including spiropyran, DASA (donor–acceptor Stenhouse adducts) and anthracenes. These photochromic molecule shows new properties under light irradiation.
In one of our first projects we have used spiropyran (SP) molecules to increase adhesion of thin films of polystyrene (PS) to glass substrate. We have shown that photochromic reactions of SP doped in PS can significantly enhance the adhesion of PS to a glass surface. Shear adhesion test studies demonstrated that adhesion of polystyrene to glass slides increased by factor of 7 after irradiation. We hypothesize that the adhesion changes arise from localized polymer and molecular motions that eliminate void spaces and surface gaps at the polymer-glass interface. The results show that adhesive forces between a prototypical polymer and an inorganic substrate can be modulated by photochromic reactions of embedded molecules.
In the next studies we have used DASA molecules that has different properties compared to spiropyran. In Contrast with Spiropyran, DASA molecule is negative photochrome and its volume reduced after laser irradiation. This is in opposite direction of what we observed for spyropiran and we expected to see a decrease in adhesion of films to surface. We have used three different methods to measure adhesion before and after laser irradiation including water detachment, adhesion test and shear test and in all samples the adhesion decreased. Our experiments suggest that molecules’ photo induced shrinking may increase voids and pores and these changes will leads to a decrease in adhesion. Reduction of chemical interaction of molecules to surface may be another reason for this change.
As an application we tried to encapsulate organic dye -as a mode- between two glass surfaces which glued together by PS/DASA polymer. Then we measured time that the adhesion would break in water and irradiated samples released dyes 10 times faster than non-irradiated samples.
In conclusion we showed that we can remotely increase and decrease adhesion using various photochromics.

Grain boundaries (GBs) move by the formation and propagation of disconnections; line defects with both dislocation and step character. During the evolution of a polycrystalline microstructure, disconnections pile-up against triple junctions (TJs). This implies that TJs accumulate a net Burgers vector, B. As the GBs migrate, the net Burgers vector at the TJ grows, creating a back stress that effectively shuts off additional disconnection motion and stops GB migration. TJs have many options to relax the Burgers vector and back stress: (1) accumulation of cancelling disconnection from the other GBs meeting at the TJ, (2) emission of other defects (e.g., lattice dislocations, twins,...), and (3) formation of new types of disconnections along the GB with opposite sign Burgers vector. I will show molecular dynamics simulations, theoretical analysis, and continuum simulations that show what is going on at TJs during GB migration and examine its implications for microstructure evolution.

Twinning is a common deformation mode in hexagonal close packed metals such as magnesium. This atomistic simulation study characterizes the relationship between the kinetics associated with motion of the {10-12} twin boundary in pure Mg and the nucleation, growth and coalescence of disconnection terraces on the twin boundary. This problem is resolved adopting both 2D and 3D simulation geometries. This study shows that the kinetics of twin boundary migration can only be addressed in 3D, as 2D simulations predict twin boundary migration rates at least an order of magnitude higher than 3D simulations. A simple constitutive relationship is extracted from the atomistic simulations. Such a model, accompanied by observations of disconnection terrace nucleation, growth and coalescence, reveals the existence of an autocatalytic terrace nucleation regime for the shear induced motion of the {10-12} twin boundary in Mg.

The mobility of grain boundaries plays an important role in governing the kinetics of microstructural evolution in every class of polycrystalline materials. Of particular interest is the role of bicrystallography, characterized by the macroscopic crystallographic degrees of freedom, on the underlying atomistic mechanisms governing grain boundary mobility. In this talk, I will present an algorithm to automatically identify the atomistic motion mechanisms that give rise to mobility of an interface. We use machine-learning methods, inspired by recent work in disordered solids, to correlate local structure with the susceptibility for rearrangement of grain boundary atoms. We show that it is possible to automatically identify mobility mechanisms of grain boundaries with a diverse range of crystallographic character.

Semiconductor photoelectrodes for hydrogen generation in photoelectrochemical cells are a very good demonstration example for the role which defects can play in function of electrical devices.
We present an extensive study on metal oxide heterstructures synthesized by chemical deposition methods with soft x-ray spectroscopy and electroanalytical methods.
The matching of substrate current collector and photoabsorber layer forms an interface with a malign electronic defect state which can be "healed" by introduction of a buffer layer from a different metal oxide - to the extent that the performance of the photoelectrode increases considerably. The molecular origin of this effect is uncovered by using oxygen ligand spectroscopy with soft x-rays. Specifically, a malign state in the valence band at the interface is removed upon introdcution of the buffer layer. The charge transport increases accordingly.
Different roles of defects are necessary at the surface which is in contact with a liquid electroyte. Here the electrocatalytic properties are relevant, and correspondingly the absorber material is facing a challenge which its stoichiometry can not perform well. But a chemical after.processing step, specifically gas phase reduction alters the oxidation state of the surface of the absorber to an extent that it can increase the photocurrent and hydrogen production efficiency considerably. This is evidenced both with soft x-ray spectroscopy and electron spectroscopy.
With this study is shown how the proper processing of components in heterostructures can yield better component performance in a device and thus better device performance.

[1] Braun A, Aksoy Akgul F, Chen Q, Erat S, Huang T-W, Jabeen N, Liu Z, Mun BS, Mao SS, Zhang X: Observation of Substrate Orientation-Dependent Oxygen Defect Filling in Thin WO3−δ/TiO2Pulsed Laser-Deposited Films with in Situ XPS at High Oxygen Pressure and Temperature. Chemistry of Materials 2012, 24:3473-3480.
[2] Braun A, Hu Y, Boudoire F, Bora DK, Sarma DD, Grätzel M, Eggleston CM: The electronic, chemical and electrocatalytic processes and intermediates on iron oxide surfaces during photoelectrochemical water splitting. Catalysis Today 2016, 260:72-81.

Garnet Li₇La₃Zr₂O₁₂ (LLZO) has been considered as one of the most promising solid-state electrolytes that could enable solid-state-batteries employing metallic Li anodes. However, most Li₇A₃M₂O₁₂ garnets have been reported to react with air or moisture, which results in the loss of Li and also in the appearance of a main Li₂CO₃ secondary phase that is detrimental to the Li⁺ conductivity at the Li-LLZO interface. Interestingly, different to other garnets, cubic LLZO was recently reported to be more stable in humid atmosphere regarding no structure change and conductivity degradation upon exposure to humid atmospheres. Although it is known that generally Li⁺/H⁺ exchange took place when garnet expose to moisture, the mechanism of how Li₂CO₃ forms on the interface is still unclear, especially for cubic LLZO. There is also lack of study on the independent role which CO₂, H₂O and O₂ role plays in Li₂CO₃ formation. Here we performed time resolved Ambient-Pressure X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy to monitor Li₂CO₃ thickness growth kinetics on Al-doped cubic LLZO in the presence of dry CO₂, O₂ assisted CO₂, and H₂O_CO₂ moisture under different gas pressures (0.01 mTorr, 1 mTorr, 100 mTorr). We elucidated that small amount of O₂ significantly catalyzes the Li₂CO₃ formation on cubic LLZO. Moreover, the minimal Li₂CO₃ formed in humid CO₂ when expose to three atmospheres of 100 mTorr, probably went through COOH^- generation and is due to proton blocking effect. We hope this kinetic spectroscopic study would shed light on protecting carbonation of LLZO during processing and help to further understand the Li₂CO₃ formation mechanism in different gases.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS:
The authors thank funding from the Energy Biosciences Institute and Shell International Exploration and Production Company. This research used resources of the Advanced Light Source, which is a U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Science User Facility under contract no. DE-AC02-05CH11231. The synthesis used the facilities supported by the U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Science, Basic Energy Sciences, Materials Sciences and Engineering Division. Portions of the calculation work were supported by a User Project at The Molecular Foundry and its compute cluster (vulcan), managed by the High Performance Computing Services Group at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL), and portions of this work used the computing resources of the National Energy Research Scientific Computing Center, LBNL, both of which are supported by the Office of Science of the United States Department of Energy under Contract DEAC02-05CH11231.

Many materials phenomena contain signatures of the coupling between chemistry (or electrochemistry) and mechanics. The coupling in the bulk of alloys is well acknowledged, for instance in studies of coherent phase transformations or of damping phenomena. Yet, strong coupling phenomena can also be found at interfaces. This may be exploited in novel materials concepts that afford unexpected functional behavior. Nanoporous-metal based hybrid materials that behave similar to piezoelectric ceramics exemplify this concept: Bodies of nanoporous gold impregnated with electrolyte emit exceptionally robust electric signals when subjected to external load. The metal-based material may thus be considered as piezoelectric, in a literal interpretation of the term. A predictive understanding of the interfacial stress-charge coupling, as the underlying microscopic phenomenon, remains elusive even after systematic experimental and numerical studies. On the other hand, the concepts which have been established in the discussion of bulk chemo mechanical coupling provide useful insights into a related phenomenon, namely the coupling between adsorption enthalpies and strain. This topic is of high interest to the field of strain-modulated catalysis. The talk will discuss relevant issues from the perspectives of experiment, phenomenological thermodynamics, and atomistics.

Sub-10nm metallic nanocrystals are expected to have unique elastic properties, strength and deformation due to the close proximity of surfaces, but are challenging to study due to the small forces and dimensions involved. Here, we use a diamond anvil cell to deform metallic nanocrystals under quasi-hydrostatic, and non-hydrostatic pressure up to 20 GPa in order to determine deformation mechanisms in this size regime and their dependence on microstructure. In particular, we are interested in the processes that lead to pseudoelasticity, or reversible shape recovery from large strain, that have have been observed previously in small noble metal nanocrystals. Au nanocrystals with sizes from 4-10 nm are synthesized using colloidal methods. Structural changes under pressure are measured using optical absorbance spectroscopy and high pressure X-ray diffraction. Optical absorbance spectroscopy is used to monitor plasmonic resonance, which is highly sensitive to nanocrystal size and shape. High pressure X-ray diffraction reveals changes in the position and breadth of diffraction peaks, which reveals elastic strain, microstrain and the formation of crystalline defects. These measurements are corroborated by transmission electron microscopy on nanocrystals after compression. We find that 4nm Au nanocrystals are able to reversibly recover their size and shape after load is removed, even after compressed of ~20% along one axis. Crystalline defects remain in the nanocrystals after recovery. Larger Au nanocrystals do not exhibit this pseudo-elastic shape recovery.

Surface topography strongly affects the functional performance of free surfaces. For example, in electromechanical switches and other applications that make and break contact, surface topography affects the mechanical and transport properties of the contact. Further, in coatings applications, the adhesion of thin films depends strongly on the surface topography of the coated surface. However, many experimental investigations to quantify the effect of surface topography on properties are inconclusive. This is because most surfaces have multi-scale fractal-like roughness, such that the values of measured topography parameters depend on the characterization size and method.

Here we use nanocrystalline diamond films of varying grain size as model systems to investigate the quantitative connection between surface structure and surface properties. In the first part of the talk, we demonstrate the quantitative characterization of surface topography using transmission electron microscopy and its combination with conventional techniques for multi-resolution characterization. Specifically, more than 100 individual measurements at scales from Ångströms to centimeters are combined using spectral analysis to yield scale-independent metrics for surface and interface topography. In the second part of the talk, we discuss experimental measurements of adhesion as a function of topography. Results are analyzed in the context of multi-scale continuum mechanics models. The investigation demonstrates that this multi-resolution approach to topography characterization is far more effective than any conventional (single-scale) roughness descriptors at predicting adhesion and other surface properties.

Understanding the sink efficiency of interfaces under irradiation is of paramount importance to tailoring materials for radiation tolerance. Using in situ irradiation coupled with precession electron diffraction analysis, defect absorption was tracked for increasing dose. Denuded zones were found to collapse, but in the absence of any detected changed in macroscopic degrees of freedom of the grain boundaries. Each grain boundary denuded zone experienced changes different doses, indicating a direct observation of the difference in grain boundary “immunity” to irradiation depending on character. Since a change in sink efficiency is likely due to a change in point defect absorption at the boundary, this indicates that something about the structure of these boundaries has changed. The grain boundary macroscopic character remains the same, however, leading to the conclusion that a change in microscopic character has occurred, possibly due to the formation of extrinsic defects in the boundary. To analyze this further, simulations were used to explore grain boundary microstates loaded with defects (mimicking a collision cascade) and assessed for vacancy formation energies. Overall, the results present a foundation for improving sink efficiency descriptions under irradiation, and take a step forward in understanding complex interfacial dependencies. Additionally, results will be shown for studies of grain boundary structure and stability, including faceting, in the context of grain boundaries acting as “phases.” These advances present the possibility that the extent to which a grain boundary’s microscopic degrees of freedom change controls sink efficiency, and thus presents an opportunity to tune such efficiency as the defect scale.

Directed irradiation synthesis (DIS) and directed plasma nanosynthesis (DPNS) are robust, scalable approaches to design and fabricate surfaces and interfaces with unique, multi-functional properties at the nanoscale. In particular, DIS/DPNS can be used to rapidly fabricate hexagonal arrays of semiconductor quantum dots at III-V semiconductor surfaces in a single process step [1]. These are desirable for their excellent optoelectronic properties, including sharply-peaked density-of-states and sharp luminescence lines [2]. However, the ion irradiation process introduces significant damage and disorder to the surface, leading to the formation of a nanometers-thick, compositionally-complex amorphous layer at the interface [3], which significantly degrades the optoelectronic properties of the III-V quantum dots. Therefore, a fundamental atomistic understanding of the irradiation-driven defect dynamics and structural-compositional disorder is crucial for optimized fabrication of these nanostructures.

We have carried out large-scale molecular dynamics (MD) simulations of low-energy (500 eV) Kr+ ion irradiation of GaSb surfaces on the Blue Waters supercomputer at the University of Illinois [4]. These simulations have shown that the irradiation-induced altered compositional depth profile drives phase separation into clusters of the enriched component (Ga or Sb) at a given depth, with characteristic sizes of a few nm, surrounded by 50/50 amorphous GaSb. The nanoscale interface between these clusters and the “bulk-amorphous” 50/50 GaSb are a region of elevated potential energy, which can function as diffusion sinks or as pathways for accelerated transport at the atomic scale. From MD simulations of ion irradiation from the initial (pristine) surface to the structure formation threshold fluence, we observe the formation of small, unstable “protoclusters” of Sb throughout the surface from prompt ion effects. The Sb protoclusters are usually <1 nm in size and contain ~4% of all Sb atoms in the GaSb. However, no evolution of a global compositional gradient emerges from these simulations, indicating that long temporal scale effects such as defect-mediated diffusion are necessary to model the complex compositional evolution of the surface. Analysis of the atomic bonding in the irradiated surface indicates a strong preferential mobility of Sb atoms, suggesting accelerated Sb diffusion to the cluster/bulk interface as the protocluster growth mechanism.

To elucidate the defect dynamics and atomic diffusion mechanisms, we have developed a hybrid MD/KMC model to connect short and long temporal scales in a single simulation framework. The KMC component models atomic diffusion through the disordered layer via a lattice-free method which relies on “in-situ” characterization of the point defects generated by cumulative ion impacts into the GaSb surface. Using this hybrid model, we test the hypothesis that irradiation-enhanced diffusion of Sb atoms towards the Sb protoclusters interfaces provides the growth mechanism to stabilize Sb protoclusters at 2-3 nm diameters. This mechanism connects the p